The Concept of Information

Caution: This draft version includes some paragraphs in the chapter "Latin Roots and Greek origins" that are omitted in the published version. The tables are omitted in this draft. The text was subject to several corrections before its publication. This version may entail mistakes.

Introduction

The concept of information as we use it in everyday English, in the sense knowledge communicated, plays a central role in contemporary society. The development and widespread use of computer networks since the end of World War II, and the emergence of information science as a discipline in the 1950s, are evidence of this focus. Although knowledge and its communication are basic phenomena of every human society, it is the rise of information technology and its global impacts that characterize ours as as an information society. It is commonplace to consider information as a basic condition for economic development together with capital, labor, and raw material; but what makes information especially significant at present is its digital nature. The impact of information technology on the natural and social sciences has made this everyday notion a highly controversial concept. Claude Shannon's (1948) "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" is a landmark work, referring to the common use of information with its semantic and pragmatic dimensions, while at the same redefining the concept within an engineering framework. The fact that the concept of knowledge communication has been designated with the word information seems, prima facie, a linguistic happenstance.

For a science like information science (IS) it is of course important how fundamental terms are defined; and in IS, as in other fields, the question of how to define information is often raised. This chapter is an attempt to review the status of the concept of information in IS, with reference also to interdisciplinary trends. In scientific discourse, theoretical concepts are not true or false elements or glimpses of some element of reality; rather, they are constructions designed to do a job the best possible way. Different conceptions of fundamental terms like information are thus more or less fruitful, depending on the theories (and in the end, the practical actions) they are expected to support. In the opening section, we discuss the problem of defining terms from the perspective of the philosophy of science.

The history of a word provides us with anecdotes that are tangential to the concept itself. But in our case, the use of the word information points to a specific perspective from which the concept of knowledge communication has been defined. This perspective includes such characteristics as novelty and relevance; i.e., it refers to the process of knowledge transformation, and particularly to selection and interpretation within a specific context. This discussion leads to the questions of why and when this meaning was designated with the word information. We explore this history, and we believe that our results may help readers better understand the complexity of the concept with regard to its scientific definitions.

Discussions about the concept of information in other disciplines are very important for IS because many theories and approaches in IS have their origins elsewhere (see the section "Information as an Interdisciplinary concept" in this chapter). The epistemological concept of information brings into play nonhuman information processes, particularly in physics and biology. And vice versa: the psychic and sociological processes of selection and interpretation may be considered using objective parameters, leaving aside the semantic dimension, or more precisely, by considering objective or situational parameters of interpretation. This concept can be illustrated also in physical terms with regard to release mechanisms, as we suggest. Our overview of the concept of information in the natural sciences as well as in the humanities and social sciences cannot hope to be comprehensive. In most cases, we can only refer to fragments of theories. However, the reader may wish to follow the leads provided in the bibliography.

Readers interested primarily in information science may derive most benefit from the section on "Information in Information Science," in which we offer a detailed explanation of diverse views and theories of information within our field; supplementing the recent ARIST chapter by Cornelius (2002). We show that the introduction of the concept of information circa 1950 to the domain of special librarianship and documentation has in itself had serious consequences for the types of knowledge and theories developed in our field. The important question is not only what meaning we give the term in IS, but also how it relates to other terms basic terms, such as documents, texts, and knowledge.

Starting with an objectivist view from the world of information theory and cybernetics, information science has turned more to the phenomena of relevance and interpretation as basic aspects of the concept of information. This change is in no way a turn to a subjectivist theory, but an appraisal of different perspectives that may determine in a particular context what is being considered as informative, be it a "thing" (Buckland, 1991b) or a document. Different concepts of information within information science reflect tensions between a subjective and an objective approach. The concept of interpretation or selection may be considered to be the bridge between these two poles. It is important, to consider the different professions involved with the interpretation and selection of knowledge. The most important thing in IS (as in information policy) is to consider information as a constitutive force in society and, thus, recognize the teleological nature of information systems and services (Braman, 1989).

How to Define a Scientific Term

Definition and Meaning Theory

It is well known that definitions are not true or false, but more or less fruitful. In a way, people are free to define terms as they like, but in reality their definitions may encounter problems. In children’s play, a chair can be defined as a table and vice versa. This works as long as the children remember and obey their own decisions and do not apply their own conventions with outsiders. However, when somebody defines a term in such an idiosyncratic way, that definition will be neglected and will not contribute to understanding, communication, or the advance of practice.

Knowing how different people apply the terms they use is helpful. Wittgenstein’s (1958a) famous use theory of meaning emphasizes this aspect, defining terms by finding out how people actually use them (see Blair's chapter in this volume). This aspect also applies to the term information. Dictionaries such as The Oxford English Dictionary (1989), provide valuable insights about the etymology of a word and how different authors have used it throughout the centuries (see Appendix). This etymology should be supplemented by more detailed descriptions of how the word has been used in different disciplines. The actual use of terms may differ from their more formal definitions. The ordinary use of a term like information may carry other meanings than formal definitions, implying that conflicting theoretical views may arise between the explicit scientific definitions of ordinary use. Because of this tendency, we must not only compare different formal definitions, but also consider the meaning of a word like information as it is used in relation to, for example, information seeking, information systems, and information services.

Studies of how a term has been used cannot, however, help us to decide how we should define it. When we use language and terms, we perform some kind of act, with the intention of accomplishing something. The different meanings of the terms we use are more or less efficient tools to help us accomplish what we want to accomplish. In this way, according to pragmatic philosophers such as Charles Sanders Peirce (1905), the meaning of a term is determined by not just the past, but also the future.

We also cite Braman (1989), pointing out how important it is for information policy to define information adequately, thus applying this pragmatic principle of definition in practical policy.

Theory Dependency of Scientific Terms

The kind of conduct performed in the sciences is the production of knowledge and the development of scientific theories. In this respect, the meaning of terms must be considered in the framework of the theories they are supposed to serve. In he philosophy of science, Chalmers (1999, pp. 104-105) has provided an important analysis of scientific concepts:

Observation statements must be expressed in the language of some theory. Consequently, it is argued, the statements, and the concepts figuring in them, will be as precise and informative as the theory in whose language they are formed is precise and informative. For instance, I think it will be agreed that the Newtonian concept of mass has a more precise meaning than the concept of democracy, say. It is plausible to suggest that the reason for the relative precise meaning of the former stems from the fact that the concept plays a specific, well-defined role in a precise, closely knit theory, Newtonian mechanics. By contrast, the social theories in which the concept “democracy” occurs are vague and multifarious. If this suggested close connection between precision of meaning of a term or statement and the role played by that term or statement in a theory is valid, then the need for coherently structured theories would seem to follow directly from it.

Chalmers also considers alternative ways to defining scientific terms, by, for example, lexical or ostensive definitions. The main problem with lexical definitions is that concepts can be defined only in terms of other concepts, the meanings of which are given. If the meanings of these latter concepts are themselves established by definition, it is clear that an infinite regress will result, unless the meanings of some concepts are known by other means. A dictionary is useless unless we already know the meanings of many words. Newton could not define mass or force in terms of previously available concepts. It was necessary for him to transcend the limits of the old conceptual framework by developing a new one. The main problem with ostensive definitions is that they are difficult to sustain, even in the case of an elementary notion like apple. Defining something like mass in mechanics, electrical field in electromagnetism or information, subject or topicality in information science (IS) is even more challenging. The dependence of the meaning of concepts on the structure of the theory in which they occur — and the dependence of the precision and degree of coherence of the latter — is thus made plausible by noting the limitations of some of the alternative ways in which a concept might be thought to acquire meaning.

Chalmers also points out that the typical history of a concept, whether it be chemical element, atom, the unconscious, and so forth, typically involves the emergence of the concept as a vague idea, followed by its gradual clarification as the theory in which it plays a part takes a more precise and coherent form. He argues that Galileo was in the process of making a major contribution to the building of a new mechanics that was to prove capable of supporting detailed experimentation at a later stage. It is hardly surprising that — contrary to popular myth — his efforts involved thought experiments, analogies, and illustrative metaphors rather than detailed experimentation. This situation is understandable if it is accepted that experimentation can only be carried out if one has a theory capable of yielding predictions in the form of precise observations.

Following Chalmers, we propose that the scientific definitions of terms like information depend on what roles we give them in our theories; in other words, the type of methodological work they must do for us. With regard to the term information Spang-Hanssen (2001, online) remarks:

In fact, we are not obliged to accept the word information as a professional term at all. It might be that this word is most useful when left without any formal definition, like e.g., the word discussion, or the word difficulty, or the word literature. It might be that the word information is useful in particular when we try to rise our professional status in relation to other professions; it sounds smart and imposing and gives an air of technicality. I find no moral objections to this sort of use of words; language is certainly not only for informative uses (“informative” here refers to the so-called intellectual or factual meaning of a text or an utterance). However, we must realize that the status-rising effect of a word may depend precisely on its being used in other fields as well, preferably in fields having a high status, like engineering and nowadays sociology. The uses in such other fields actually makes it impossible at the same time to keep this word as a formally defined professional term in our field without some risk of confusion; the words force, energy and effect—used both generally and in physics as formally defined terms—illustrate this situation.

The word information—and combinations like information retrieval, information center—have definitely contributed to rise the public opinion of library and documentation work, which is generally held to be a little dull, dusty and distant from what is actually going on in society. Maybe it would be wise to leave the word information there, were it not for the fact—already mentioned—that several attempts have been made to define information as a formal term relative to documentation and information work, and even attempts to define information as some measurable quantity, corresponding to questions of the type: How much information was retrieved by the search?

The Danger of Applying Persuasive Definitions

Many kinds of definitions exist (Yagisawa, 1999). The tendency to use and define terms in order to impress other people has been called persuasive definition. The definition provided by Brookes (1977) K(S) + δI –> K(S + δS) seems to us to serve only such a persuasive function. If we agree with Spang-Hanssen that definitions are legitimate ways to boost the status of a profession and research field, we must face the fact that such use can cause internal confusion and lack of self-respect in the discipline. Schrader, among others, has demonstrated this outcome. He studied about 700 definitions of information science and its antecedents from 1900 to 1981 and found that:

[T]he literature of information science is characterized by conceptual chaos. This conceptual chaos issues from a variety of problems in the definitional literature of information science: uncritical citing of previous definitions; conflating of study and practice; obsessive claims to scientific status; a narrow view of technology; disregard for literature without the science or technology label; inappropriate analogies; circular definition; and, the multiplicity of vague, contradictory, and sometimes bizarre notions of the nature of the term "information" (Schrader, 1983, p.99)

As we can see, the cost of applying persuasive definitions in IS has been extremely high; this approach should no longer be accepted by journals and authorities in the field. We have to ask more seriously: What role—if any—should the concept of information play in IS? In order to answer this question, one must clarify the role and nature of scientific theories in IS. We suggest that focusing on the concept of information may have misdirected our field, and that a closer relation to concepts such as signs, texts, and knowledge may provide more satisfactory conceptual frameworks for the kind of problems that IS is trying to answer. When we use the term information in IS, we should always keep in mind that information is what is informative for a given person. What is informative is depends on the interpretative needs and skills of the individual (although these are often shared with members of a discourse community).

Studies and Sources of the Word Information

[A] word never—well, hardly ever—shakes off its etymology and its formation. In spite of all changes in the extensions of and additions to its meanings, and indeed rather pervading and governing these, there will still persist the old idea. [...] Going back into the history of a word, very often into Latin, we come back pretty commonly to pictures or models of how things happen or are done." (Austin 1961, pp. 149-150)

The study of the history of a word, its etymology, is not concerned, as the word etymology itself prima facie suggests, with a true meaning (Gr. étymon) that apparently may be the basis of its formation and use; but rather with the interrelation of its different uses (particularly its translation into other languages and contexts), including its metaphors and metonymies. By examining the history of word uses, we find some of the primitive forms or contexts that underlie the higher-level scientific practices. This lessens the expectations we may have with regard to univocal higher-level concepts, and may help us better manage vagueness and ambiguity. To question modern terminology, to look more closely at the relation between signs, meanings, and references and to pay attention to historic contexts shifts helps us understand how present and future uses are interwoven.

The word information has Latin roots (informatio). Before we explore this thread we should examine its entry in The Oxford English Dictionary (1989, see Appendix). We shall consider two basic contexts in which information is used; namely, the act of molding the mind and the act of communicating knowledge. These two activities are, obviously, intimately related. But when and how do information and molding belong together? Based on studies by Seiffert (1968) and Schnelle (1976), Capurro (1978) explores the Greek origins of the Latin word informatio as well as its subsequent development. This historico-critical background makes possible a better understanding of the higher-level concepts of information in the Hellenistic period as well as in the Middle Ages and in modern times. Peters' (1988) view is highly supportive of these analyses.

Latin Roots and Greek Origins

The Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (See footnote 2) (1900) gives detailed references to the uses of informatio and informo in Latin since Vergil (70-19 B.C.) until the eighth century. There are two basic contexts, namely a tangible (corporaliter) and an intangible (incorporaliter) one. The prefix in may have the meaning of negation as in informis or informitas, but in our case it strengthens the act of giving a form to something, as in Vergil's verses on Vulcan and the Cyclops hammering out (informatum) lightning bolts for Zeus (Aen. 8, 426) or a huge shield for Aeneas (Aen. 8, 447). Early references to the use of informo are in a biological context, for instance by Varro (116-27 B.C.) who describes how the foetus is being "informed" (informatur) by head and backbone (Frg. Gell. 3, 10, 7). The intangible or spiritual context concerns moral and pedagogical uses since the second century A.D. that reveal not only the influence of Christianity — Tertullian (ca. 160-220 A.D.) calls Moses populi informator; that is, people's educator or molder — but in several cases also an explicit reference to Greek philosophy, particularly to Plato (427-348/7 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Several Greek words that were translated with informatio or informo such as hypotyposis (which means model, especially in a moral context) and prolepsis (representation), but most higher-level uses are mostly explicitly related to eidos, idea, typos and morphe; that is, to key concepts of Greek ontology and epistemology (Capurro 1978). This relationship is clearly the case with prominent thinkers such as, for instance, Cicero (106-43 B.C.) and Augustine (354-430 A.D.). Nevertheless, these higher-level concepts have their roots in the low-level use of these words, particularly in the primitive context of pottery as well as in the Greek experience of limitation and shining-forth of what we perceive sensually (phainonemon).

Cicero explicitly translates in De natura deorum Epicure's (341-270 B.C.) concept of prolepsis — i.e. the representations of the gods or of things impressed in our souls before any experience (a priori, as Kant would say) as informatio rei (nat.deor. 1, 43). At the same time he uses this word in a rhetorical context — for instance in De oratore (2, 358) as well as in Orator, where he explicitly points to Plato's ideas (orat. 10) — in order to describe the active and a posteriori action of the mind depicting something unknown or helping memory, as part of the ars memoriae, to better remember a past situation through the pictorial representation of a sentence (sententiae informatio). Several references are to the use of informo in a biological as well as in a pedagogical and moral context. A particularly interesting one can be found in his speech Pro Archia.

-> The Greek poet Aulus Licinius Archias, Cicero's teacher who was born in Antiocheia, was accused of becoming illegally a Roman citizen. Cicero points that Archias learned in his youth the arts, such as writing, by which young people are usually educated or informed in their humanity ("quibus aetas puerilis ad humanitatem informari solet") (Arch. 3).

In Augustine, we have the influence of Greek ontology and epistemology on the one hand, and of Christian tradition on the other. In De trinitate, Augustine calls the process of visual perception informatio sensus (trin. 11,2,3) and he uses the famous Platonic (Theaet. 191d) and Aristotelian (De an. 424 a 17) metaphor of the impression (imprimitur) of a ring seal into wax (trin. 11,2,3). According to Augustine, the images or representations of the perceived objects are stored in memory. These images do not inform, following the Platonic view, the soul (mens) or the rational intellect (intelligentia rationalis), but only reflection (cogitatio); that is, the faculty dealing with internal representations (informatio cogitationis) (trin. 14,8, 11). Augustine uses informatio also in a pedagogical context: Christ is God's form (forma dei). His deeds instruct and educate us (ad eruditionem informationemque nostram) (epist. 12). In De civitate dei, he describes the process of illumination of the heavenly community (informatio civitatis sanctae) (civ. 11,24).

Throughout the Middle Ages informatio and informo are commonly used in the aforementioned epistemological, ontological, and pedagogical contexts by several authors (see Capurro, 1978 for details). The Aristotelian influence on the higher-level philosophical concept of informatio is shown at best in the work of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Bussa (1975) lists in his Index Thomisticus 66 references on informatio — 15 of them in nominative — and 454 references on informo. Schütz (1958) distinguishes in his Thomas-Lexikon between informatio in the sense of "providing something with a form" in an epistemological or ontological context and the pedagogical sense of education or instruction.

-> Following Thomas Aquinas' interpretation of the Aristotelian concepts of form (eidos or morphe) and matter (hyle), both principles cause the unity of an individual being (informatio materiae) in the sense listed by the OED: 'the action of 'informing' with some active or essential quality' (OED II, 7). The Aristotelian theory was called hylomorphism. From a theological point of view it is important for Thomas to distinguish between the biological process giving life on the basis of something that already exists (per modum informationis) and the act of creation out of nothing (per modum creationis) (In de causis 18/94). In other words, there is an ontological difference — i.e. a difference concerning the meaing of being, not just a difference between beings — between informatio and creatio. Because of the unity of the human body with the soul as substantial form (forma substantialis) Thomas underlines, in contrast to Augustine, the unity of the knowledge process conceived as a double movement of abstracting ("abstractio") the forms (forma, species) — the Aristotelian eidos or morphe — of things and of going back to the things in a process of sensory-bounded intellectual re-cognition ("conversio ad phantasmata"). Thomas' termini technici for these processes are informatio sensus and informatio intellectus possibilis (Summa theol. I, 14.2.co/4). He underlines the role of the active intellect (intellectus agens) in the (re-)cognition process. Finally, he conceives information processes, similarly to Augustine, in a large pedagogical and moral context, where informatio means the forming of virtues (informatio virtutum) as well as of moral life as a whole (informatio morum) (Summa theol. III, 110.4.co/15).

Modern and Postmodern Uses of Information

"The action of 'informing' with some active or essential quality" had, according to the Oxford English Dictionary "a quite restrictive use" not only in English, but also in other modern European languages, and references on "formation or molding of the mind or character, training, instruction, teaching" date from the 14th century. Probably the most intriguing question from the point of view of the history of ideas concerns the ontological use of informatio — both in the lower-level sense of "molding matter" as well as in the higher-level sense used by Scholastics as informatio materiae — which became obsolete not only in modern languages that, like English, inherited the Latin word and slightly transformed it into information, retaining the epistemological meaning, but also, for instance, in German where the word Information was actually used in the sense of education and communication since the 15th century. Informatio was literally translated — first in a mystical context as in-Bildunge or in-Formunge; later on in a general pedagogical sense, such as used by Christoph Martin Wieland (1733-1813) — with Bildung, a term heavily charged with higher-level meaning (Capurro 1978, p. 176). A plausible explanation for the loss of the ontological higher-level sense is the decline of Scholastic philosophy caused by the rise of modern empirical science. As Peters (1988, p. 12) states:

In the feverish demolition of medieval institutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the notion that information consisted in the activity or process of endowing some material entity with form remained largely unchanged. But the notion that the universe was ordered by forms fell into disrepute, and the context of this in-forming shifted from matter to mind. Both changes inaugurated a massive inversion in the meaning of information.

This transition from Middle Ages to Modernity in the use of the concept of information — from "giving a (substantial) form to matter" to "communicating something to someone" — can be detected in the natural philosophy of René Descartes (1596-1650), who calls ideas the "forms of thought," not in the sense that these are "pictured" ("depictae") in some part of the brain, but "as far as they inform the spirit itself oriented to this part of the brain" ("sed tantum quatenus mentem ipsam in allem cerebri partem conversam informant." (Descartes 1996, VII, 161). As Peters (1988, p 13) states:

The "doctrine of ideas," developed initially by Descartes, was central to early modern philosophy, both rationalist and empiricist. Abandoning the "direct perception" of the scholastics — the immediate communion of Intellect and Nature — Descartes interposed "ideas" between the two. An "idea" was something present to the mind, an image, copy, or representation, with a problematic relation to real things in the world. For empiricists (like Locke), the stream of ideas was the raw material from which genuine knowledge could be built; for rationalists (like Descartes), it was a veil of illusion, to be pierced by logic and reason.

Nevertheless, the concept of information ceases to be a higher-level concept until the rise of information theory in the 20th century. Philosophers such as Francis Bacon (1561-1626), John Locke (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753), David Hume (1711-1776), and Thomas Reid (1711-1796) criticize scholastic hylomorphism and particularly the theory of abstraction. Peters (1988, p. 12) asserts that Bacon's (1967) "Great Instauration":

criticizes the logicians of his day for receiving "as conclusive the immediate informations of the sense..." Instead, those "informations" must be subjected, according to Bacon, to a sure plan that will sort the true form the false. Though Bacon's usage may not appear irreconcilable with our own, the inverted pluralization should tip us off that he does not completely share our prejudices (we should say "the information of the senses"). In fact, this locution exemplifies a perfectly hylomorphic notion of the workings of the senses: they are a kind of matter (wax being a favorite empiricist instance) on which objects of the world may leave their shapes or stamps. What is interesting here is that the site of information is being shifted from the world at large to the human mind and senses. This shift requires no break with scholastic notions of mind or nature.

Indeed this epistemological notion of information(s), particularly the wax metaphor, was a key higher-level concept throughout the Middle Ages. Consider Locke's (1995, p. 373) statement: "No existence of anything without us, but only of GOD, can certainly be known further than our senses inform us." Peters (1988, pp. 12-13) concludes:

Information was readily deployed in empiricist philosophy (though it played a less important role than other words such as impression or idea) because it seemed to describe the mechanics of sensation: objects in the world in-form the senses. But sensation is entirely different from "form" — the one is sensual, the other intellectual; the one is subjective, the other objective. My sensation of things is fleeting, elusive, and idiosynchratic [sic]. For Hume, especially, sensory experience is a swirl of impressions cut off from any sure link to the real world... In any case, the empiricist problematic was how the mind is informed by sensations of the world. At first informed meant shaped by; later it came to mean received reports from. As its site of action drifted from cosmos to consciousness, the term's sense shifted from unities (Aristotle's forms) to units (of sensation). Information came less and less to refer to internal ordering or formation, since empiricism allowed for no preexisting intellectual forms outside of sensation itself. Instead, information came to refer to the fragmentary, fluctuating, haphazard stuff of sense. Information, like the early modern worldview more generally, shifted from a divinely ordered cosmos to a system governed by the motion of corpuscles. Under the tutelage of empiricism, information gradually moved from structure to stuff, from form to substance, from intellectual order to sensory impulses.

Later developments on etymology are partly covered by the next section. Here we will conclude that the modern uses of information show a transition period in which the medieval ontological concept of "molding matter" is not just abandoned but reshaped under empirical and epistemological premises. It has been extremely interesting to observe how the concept of information is closely connected to views of knowledge. This conclusion is important when we later analyze the concept of information in information science, because it indicates a severly neglected connection between theories of information and theories of knowledge.

Information as an Interdisciplinary Concept

Almost every scientific discipline today uses the concept of information within its own context and with regard to specific phenomena. Can a common meaning for this term be derived, or do we have to agree with the skeptical view expressed by Bogdan (1994, 0p. 53)?

My skepticism about a definitive analysis of information acknowledges the infamous versatility of information. The notion of information has been taken to characterize a measure of physical organization (or decrease in entropy), a pattern of communication between source and receiver, a form of control and feedback, the probability of a message being transmitted over a communication channel, the content of a cognitive state, the meaning of a linguistic form, or the reduction of an uncertainty. These concepts of information are defined in various theories such as physics, thermodynamics, communication theory, cybernetics, statistical information theory, psychology, inductive logic, and so on. There seems to be no unique idea of information upon which these various concepts converge and hence no proprietary theory of information. (See footnote 3)

A broad philosophical debate continues as to whether the concept should address a knowledge process including, as a necessary condition, a human knower or, at the very least, an interpretative system, or whether it should exclude mental states and user-related intentions and be considered as addressing an objective magnitude or property of beings (Pérez Gutiérrez, 2000; Ropohl 2001). Between these two positions are different kinds of mediating theories, including the quest for a unified theory of information (Hofkirchner, 1999). This controversy reflects the complex history of the term.

In their seminal book The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages, Machlup and Mansfield (1983) collected key views on the interdisciplinary controversy in computer science, artificial intelligence, library and information science, linguistics, psychology, and physics, as well as in the social sciences. Machlup (1983, p. 660) himself disagrees with the use of the concept of information in the context of signal transmission, the basic senses of information in his view al referring "to telling something or to the something that is being told. Information is addressed to human minds and is received by human minds." All other senses, including its use with regard to nonhuman organisms as well to society as a whole, are, according to Machlup, metaphoric and, as in the case of cybernetics, anthropomorphic. The confusion started with the abstraction of meaning in information theory (Shannon & Weaver, 1972). Machlup (1983, p. 660) found that human sciences like psychology, economics, decision theory, and linguistics had adopted the basic human-related meaning, asserting it with some restrictions:

The requirement of truth or correctness should exclude false or incorrect messages; the requirement of value or usefulness should exclude messages not helpful in decisions and actions; the requirement of novelty should exclude repeated or redundant messages; the requirement of surprise should exclude messages that the recipient expected; the requirement of uncertainty-reduction should exclude messages that leave the recipient's state of uncertainty unchanged or increased; and so forth. No exhaustive enumeration of persuasive or dictatorial restrictions is here intended.

In short, for Machlup, information is a human phenomenon. It involves individuals transmitting and receiving messages in the context of their possible actions.

More than 10 years later, Kornwachs and Jacoby (1996) edited Information. New Questions to a Multidisciplinary Concept. This volume displays a general tendency toward what we might call the naturalization of information. In his contribution "Can Information Be Naturalized?," Zoglauer responds in the negative with regard to semantic and pragmatic information, which is different from syntactic information; that is, from any kind of mind-dependent semiotic units as well as functional information whose interpreter can be a Turing machine and/or any kind of living organism processing neural and genetic information. Also in this volume Capurro (1996) defines information as an anthropological category concerning the phenomenon of human messages, whose vertical and horizontal structures are related to the Greek concept of message (angelia) and as well as to philosophic discourse (logos). The controversy sorrounding the naturalization of information goes back to the work of physicists and engineers such as L. Boltzmann, J. v. Neumann, L. Szilard, H. Nyquist, N. Wiener, and particularly to R.V.L. Hartley (1928, p. 536) who in his article "Transmission of Information," argued that, because electrical transmission systems have to do with machines and not with human beings, "it is desirable therefore to eliminate the psychological factors involved and to establish a measure of information in terms of purely physical quantities."

Warren Weaver discussed the elimination of meaning from the concept of information , within the engineering context of signal transmission, in a similar way with regard to Shannon's "Mathematical Theory of Communication:"

The word information, in this theory, is used in a special sense that must not be confused with its ordinary usage. In particular, information must not be confused with meaning. In fact, two messages, one of which is heavily loaded with meaning and the other of which is pure nonsense, can be exactly equivalent, from the present viewpoint, as regards information. It is this, undoubtedly, that Shannon means when he says, "the semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering aspects." But this does not mean that the engineering aspects are necessarily irrelevant to the semantic aspects. (Shannon & Weaver, 1949, p. 8)

The philosophical controversy about the concept of information in the 20th century had its origin in cybernetics, because the concepts of communication and information were conceived at a higher level of abstraction and not reduced to the communication of human knowledge as expressed by Norbert Wiener's (1961, p. 132) famous dictum: "Information is information, not matter or energy. No materialism which does not admit this can survive at the present day." This was of course a challenge to dialectic materialism. Studies on the concept of information from a materialistic point of view followed (Karpatschof, 2000; Kirschenmann 1969; Klaus, 1963; Ursul 1970). Wiener's idea of information as a third metaphysical principle was developed by Günther (1963), while, according to Titze (1971), information is not a substantial or metaphysical principle but expresses a tendency for order and evolution. In his seminal work, Oeser (1976) places information within the context of epistemology as a key concept concerning the creation of scientific knowledge. He explicitly refers to the Latin and Greek roots of the term information. Weizsäcker (1974) also follows this path, as we shall show in the next section. But, with some exceptions, the concept of information is not at the core of philosophic research until the end of the century. The historical review of the concept by Schnelle (1976) refers to linguistic and cybernetics. Weizsäcker develops his views on the relationship between language and information particularly in dialog with Heidegger (1959). In a seminar with Eugen Fink on Heraclitus, Heidegger also points to the naturalization of the concept of information in biology; that is, to genetic information (Heidegger & Fink, 1970, pp. 25-26; Capurro, 1981). Conceptions of information within philosophy of science and analytic philosophy, particularly since the late 1970s, are related to specific sciences, particularly physics, biology, and linguistics. As a result of this development the tendency has been to re-humanize the concept of information; that is, to place it within a cultural context. But at the same time, a search continues for a higher level of reflection in which information and communication, whether human or not, are seen with their corresponding differentia specifica from the viewpoint of the genus of interpretation or selection. This higher level of reflection means, on the one hand, a renaissance of the ontological dimension of the Greek roots of informatio beyond a restrictive humanistic view, while, on the other, the modern, but now de-humanized, perspective of information as knowledge communicated, gives rise to what we could call a communicative ontology where not only living beings (other than humans) but also all kinds of systems are said to produce, storage, process, and exchange information. This perspective may also explain the rise of information science as a science that is supposed to be related to (computer) systems as well as to human beings.

The Concept of Information in the Natural Sciences

Information is prima facie something that flows between a sender and a receiver. But Shannon's definition of information is quantitative concerning possible selections from a repertoire of physical symbols. It is, in fact, as Underwood (2001) remarks, a theory of signal or message, not of information transmission. Shannon's model of communication includes six elements: a source, an encoder, a message, a channel, a decoder, and a receiver (Shannon 1948).

See: http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/index.html
See also Shannon & Weaver (1972, 34, Fig. 1)

Strictly speaking no information could be communicated between a sender and a receiver, because this theory is not concerned with the communication of a meaningful message, but with the reproduction of a selection process. Shannon correlates information — that is, the number of possible choices in order to create a message — and uncertainty. The greater the freedom of choice, the greater the uncertainty; that is, the information. This concept of information seems, as Weaver remarks, "disappointing and bizarre — disappointing because it has nothing to do with meaning, and bizarre because it deals not with a single message but rather with the statistical character of a whole ensemble of messages, bizarre also because in these statistical terms the two words information and uncertainty find themselves to be partners" (Shannon & Weaver 1972, p. 27)

Völz (1982-1983) gives an overview of the different approaches to the concept of information in the natural sciences. According to Mahler (1996), information is a "contextual concept;" in other words, the question: "What is information?" cannot be stated without reference to a situation. In the case of quantum physics, this situation is a dynamic scenario in which "decisions" are carried out by a system that gives rise to an "information flow." Such decision making, although being arranged by human beings, does not require conscious observers. Quantum mechanical systems are embedded within a classical environment. The theoretical model must combine system dynamics and information dynamics, which are separated within the classical world of observation, where information can be copied at will. Given the incompatibility of observables like location and impact, there is no transmission of encoded information in the individual photons between A and B, local information coming into being only after measurement. Mahler shows that this fundamental contextuality can be exploited in communication scenarios particularly with regard to cryptography. According to Mahler (1996, p. 117), "information can only be defined within the scenario, it is not just out there." In other words, information is not a pure observable, but a theoretical construct. It is "interpreted data." As Bennett and DiVincenzo (2000) show, an information theory based on quantum principles extends and completes classical information theory. A quantum theory of information offers benefits not only to cryptography but also to quantum information processing. A quantum bit or "qubit" is a microscopic system, such as an atom, or nuclear spin, or photon.

The physicist and philosopher Carl-Friedrich von Weizsäcker conceives information as a twofold category: (1) information is only that which is understood; (2) Information is only that which generates information (Weizsäcker, 1974). Weizsäcker points to the Aristotelian and Platonic origins of the term to show that the concept of information is related to form or structure (definition 2). Information means, at the human level, the concept; not the thinking process itself. In order for a concept to be information, two conditions are necessary; namely, it must be a linguistic entity and it must be univocal. A circular movement between language and information serves as a precondition of scientific thinking (Weizsäcker, 1974). Weizsäcker (1974, p. 351) stresses that a biological structures, or more generally, information as "a measure for the amount of form," is something that can be potentially known (definition 1). At the same time, a whole organism is the product of genetic information (definition 2). Weizsäcker calls generating forms "objectivized semantics." Information is a property of material entities: "matter has form, consciousness knows form." (Weizsäcker, 1974, p. 167) At the level of thermodynamics, actual information means the opposite of entropy; at the level of consciousness it has syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic dimensions. Evolution is the increase of form. Weizsäcker translates the information concept within signal transmission into the context of thermodynamics and biological evolution. The macro state of, say, the Latin alphabet used to send a message, makes possible the choice of a specific letter at the micro level. The same can be said with regard to chromosomes and a DNA sequence. Thermodynamic entropy measures the distance between the knowledge of the macro and the ignorance at the micro level. The probability of possible events takes place within specific conditions. No absolute concept of information exists (Weizsäcker, 1985). Contrary to Plato, information should not be conceived as perennial form, but as changing over time (Weizsäcker 1992). Finally, Weizsäcker (1974, p. 60) points to the "unavoidable circle" between language and information; that is, between word plurivocity and conceptual univocity, as a characteristic of exact thinking. The reason is that we are finite observers and actors within language as well as within evolution. We cannot, in Kantian terms, understand things as they are in themselves and therefore we never have fully univocal concepts (Weizsäcker, 1992). On the basis of Weizsäcker's twofold concept of information, Lyre (1998, p. 76) develops "a quantum theory of information" (Ur-Theorie) with "basic alternatives" (Ur-Alternativen) representing the information content of a yes/no decision or one bit of quantum-theoretic potential information (Ur). Urs are potential information (Lyre, 1998). This idea of information units is prima facie similar to Stonier's theory of objective information. According to Stonier (1990, p. 21)"information exists;" that is, information exists independently of human thinking (Stonier 1997). Stonier follows Norbert Wiener's (1961, p. 132) famous dictum:

The mechanical brain does not secrete thought "as the liver does bile," as the earlier materialists claimed, nor does it put it out in the form of energy, as the muscle puts out its activity. Information is information, nor matter or energy. No materialism which does not admit this can survive at the present day.

Structural and kinetic information is an intrinsic component of the universe. It is independent of whether any form of intelligence can perceive it or not (Stonier, 1991). Information may exist in particular form, comparable to photons, as "infons" (Stonier, 1996, p. 138). The term "infon" was coined by Keith Devlin (1992) and refers to parameters corresponding to individuals and locations (Israel & Perry 1990, p. 8). Stonier's view is orthogonal to Weizsäcker's twofold conception of information and Lyre's quantum theory of information with its Kantian background. Urs are not infons; that is, they are not particles in space and time. Finally, Stonier separates the syntactic from the semantic aspects of information, whereas Lyre, 1998, pp. 155-156) looks for a "complete concept of information." Stonier's (1999) evolutionary view foresees the emergence of a global brain similar to Teilhard de Chardin's (1964) "noosphere." According to Stonier, it is important to distinguish between information and meaning. Information is, say, the letters of a written alphabet or the nucleotides of a strand of DNA. Two moles of sodium chloride contain twice as much information as one mole. It may yield a message if and only if it has been processed. If the nucleotide in the second sequence is identical with the first, its message is merely redundant. The message may acquire a meaning if and only if it has been information-processed by a recipient. The meaning of two identical messages would not double "although it might be increased somewhat as a result of being repeated." (Stonier, 1996, p. 137) This evolutionary approach to information within the natural (and social) sciences has been discussed at international conferences on the foundations of information science (Conrad & Marijuan 1996; Hofkirchner 1999). Information science is seen in this context as an interdisciplinary or at least multidisciplinary science:

As a putative vertical science it creates its own spattering of subdisciplines in the overlapping with the other existing sciences: information physics, information chemistry [molecular computing], bioinformation [artificial life], informational neuroscience [artificial intelligence], and socioinformation." (Marijuan, 1996, p. 91)

Biological systems are treated as networks in which information processes at all scales participate (Loewenstein, 1999). The features of this autopoietic universe are collapse, irreversibility, and self-regulation, where higher levels act downwardly on the lower levels. This circularity remains imperfect. The physics of biological life recapitulates the underlying physics of the universe (Conrad, 1996). According to Matsune (1996), information is intrinsically ambivalent with regard to temporality. Shannon's information theory refers to synchronic information; that is, to a process existing in a finite time period and ignoring historical antecedents. Matsuno (1996, p. 111) quotes Weizsäcker: Information is only that which produces information. In evolutionary processes we are concerned only with diachronic information. The historicity of events does not allow participants to claim a global perspective in an atemporal manner. Within this internalist perspective conflicts among the participants inevitable arise as there is no possibility of attaining simultaneous communication among the participants. The duration of time in production contrasts with the static configuration within products. Products constitute boundary conditions for subsequent production. Measurement of products by an external observer is opposed to internal measurement of production. Internal measurement remains local; external measurement is global. In other words, an external perspective is only possible with regard to what has been accomplished and frozen in the record. Matsuno's question is, then, how an external description of internal measurement is possible. The introspective and the extrospective boundary conditions have to coincide "otherwise, the integrity of the notion of boundary conditions would collapse." The local-to-global activity of information becomes crystallized in a product in global time while the global-to-local activity makes synchronization skewed in locally asynchronous time. "Information is intrinsically a conceptual device connecting the local to the global." (Matsuno, 1998, p. 66) Matsuno (2000) formulates this connection between local and global information in linguistic terms: How could the present progressive tense be related to the present perfect tense, and how could this relationship be addressed in the present tense?

According to Fleissner and Hofkirchner (1995), the concept of information should not be restricted to a particular level of reality. But, due to qualitative changes at different levels of reality, the concept of information may have:

Fleissner and Hofkirchner call this problem "Capurro's trilemma," which is indeed an Aristotelian one (Capurro 1995; Capurro, Fleissner, & Hofkirchner 1999; Fleissner & Hofkirchner 1995). The view of evolution as self-organization offers, according to Fleissner and Hofkirchner, a paradigm for dealing with this problem. In the process of evolution, different kinds of low structures generate higher-level structures, starting with physical systems through biological systems to social systems. Evolution is an autopoietic process in which these systems select possible ways of reaction, and forms are transformed. It is a nondeterministic process that is not merely ruled by the classic concept of causality (actio est reactio) but by the principle: causa non aequat effectum, actio non est reactio, or, "equal causes do not have equal effects, every action does not have an equal reaction" (Fleissner & Hofkirchner, 1999, p. 209). This second type of self-organized causality is based on informational relations. This information concept is related to its Latin origins as information; meaning a dynamic process of formation and not just the meaning of a message (Fleissner & Hofkirchner, 1995). A unified theory of information should give an account of the dynamic process of evolution that embraces the whole of reality (Hofkirchner 1999). Laszlo (1999, p. 6) asks for "invariant patterns appearing in diverse transformation" during the evolutionary process. Brier (1999) conceives of cybersemiotics as an ontological and epistemological framework for a universal information science. The evolutionary dissolution of the trilemma has, in our opinion, a metaphysical rather than a scientific status insofar as it presupposes a view of the whole of reality that is not possible for a finite observer.

Some philosophers explicitly criticize the use of the concept of information in the natural sciences. As Küppers (1996, p. 140) remarks:

The majority of biologists, especially molecular biologists, appear to accept that biological information is indeed a natural entity, which expresses itself in the specific structures of biological macromolecules. However, this attitude has recently been the target of strong criticism from the constructivistic philosophers of science (Janich 1992). Their main attack has been directed against the application of the concept of information in non-human areas that are governed entirely by natural laws.

According to Küppers, human language can be understood as a higher evolutionary development of the molecular-genetic language, which is the opposite of Janich's view of biological information as analogous with human information. The use of the concept of information in the natural sciences is a redundant description of the concept of causality (Janich, 1996).

The Concept of Information in the Humanities and Social Sciences

Psychology is a field bridges the natural sciences on one hand and the humanities and social sciences on the other. In psychology, the concept of information has had a central role with the so-called cognitive revolution from 1956 onward, also called the information-processing paradigm in psychology. (This development gave birth to a whole new interdisciplinary field, named cognitive science, from about 1975. Gärdenfors (1999) reviews the development of this field.) In spite of early disappointments with information theory (see Quastler, 1956; Rapoport, 1956), the dominant trend in psychology has been a kind of functionalism in which human cognitive processes are seen as analogous with information processing computers. There has not been much explicit discussion of the concept of information in psychology. (Some exceptions are Golu (1981), Hamlyn (1977), Harary & Batell (1978), Harrah (1958), Miller (1953), Miller (1988), Noerretranders (1998), Peterfreund & Schwartz (1971), Rapoport (1953), and Rogers (1998).) The trend has been reductionistic in the sense that human beings are seen as extracting information from the physical and chemical properties of sensory stimuly. Such reductionism stands in contrast to more hermeneutic and historical understandings in which perception is also informed by cultural factors, and information is not defined or processed according to inborn mechanisms in the brain, but by historically developed criteria and mechanisms. (Problems relating to psychological conceptions of information are also important for other human and social sciences, and for the proper understanding of users in library and information science. See Karpatschof (2000) for a culturally informed conception of human cognition.)

Information may refer, as Qvortrup (1993) remarks, to a change in the external world, and in this case it has been defined as "a difference which makes a difference" (Bateson , 1972, p. 459); that is, an operational change brought about by the external world in an observing system. It may also refer, inverting the order of this relation, to the process of finding differences — information as a difference which finds a difference — in which case the system is stimulated by a difference in the external world. On one hand, information is a thing, on the other, a psychic construction. Information as a difference in reality — as something existing independent of an observer — seems to be the view of information in engineering and the natural sciences, although, as we have seen, this is not always the case. This was one implication of Shannon's exclusion of the semantic and pragmatic aspects of the everyday use of the word information. According to Qvortrup (1993) Shannon and Weaver are unclear as to whether they conceive information as a substance or as a sign.

Nevertheless, we note that Shannon retains a basic aspect of the modern concept of information in the sense of knowledge communication, namely selection. When dealing with the meaning of a message we discuss interpretation; that is, the selection between semantic and pragmatic possibilities. To interpret a message means, in other words, to introduce the receiver's perspective — her or his beliefs and desires; to make her or him an active partner in the information process. We would like to suggest a difference between motivational (or anthropological) and casual (or natural) theories of information. Shannon develops a perspective, as we shall show, on causal theories of information with different kinds of "family resemblance" (Wittgenstein 1958a). One important resemblance between the two kinds of theories is the role of selection in each. Even in the extreme case in which any interpretation is supposedly excluded — as in the engineering perspective of the conduit metaphor — we can still recognize a process of selection. In other words, we state a resemblance between interpreting meaning and selecting signals. The concept of information makes this resemblance possible. Bar-Hillel pointed to the "semantic traps" of Shannon's terminology, particularly with regard to the analogies between the psychological and the engineering fields. Bar-Hillel and Carnap (1953) developed a semantic theory of information in which they distinguish between information and amount of information within a linguistic framework. Dretske's (1981, p. 63-64) theory of semantic information is based on the distinction between information and meaning. Information does not require an interpretive process, although it is a necessary condition for acquiring knowledge. He states three conditions that a definition of information must satisfy, namely:

On one hand, information is not an absolute concept, because we can acquire varying degrees of information about a source. On the other hand, however, "the information that s is F does not come in degrees. It is an all or nothing affair." (Dretske, 1981, p. 108) According to Dretske (1981, pp. 80-81), information is always relative to "a receiver's background knowledge" (k); it is "something that is required for knowledge." It is indeed a "harmless fiction" to think about a number of possibilities existing at the source "independently of what anyone happened to know." There is no false information but there is meaning without truth (Dretske, 1981, pp. 171-235). Indeed, "information is what is capable of yielding knowledge, and since knowledge requires truth, information requires it also" (Dretske, 1981, p. 45). The flow of information is based on the following Xerox principle: "If A carries the information that B, and B carries the information that C, then A carries the information that C" (Dretske, 1981, p. 57) Dretske's information concept is different from meaning, but basically related to cognitive systems. The relation between knowledge and information is a recursive but not a circular one. In order to learn that s is F a person should know about s, without knowing that s is F. On the other hand, the information that s is F "causes K's belief that s is F." "Knowledge is information-produced belief" (Dretske, 1981, pp. 91-92) Thus, in the case of "genuine cognitive systems," as distinct from "mere processors of information," knowledge is specified with regard to information, meaning, and belief; or, in other words, with regard to interpretation during the learning process. Computers have, at least so far, no capability of using information. It means nothing to them. They can only manipulate symbols (Dretske, 1986).

Dretske's definition of information does not initially include k (tha is, the receiver's background knowledge). This cognitivistic limitation seems illegitimate if we consider other kinds of receivers or, more precisely, other kinds of situations. Becoming aware of this contradiction, Barwise and Perry (1983) developed situation theory and situation semantics (STASS). This theory is based on the idea of regularities between types of situations, which allow an information flow to take place (Barwise & Seligman, 1997). Linguistic regularities, as considered by Dretske, are a special case of this flow.

Information is not a property of facts but it is context or constraint dependent. A difference exists between "pure information" and "incremental information". "Pure information" is illustrated as follows:

Whenever there is a state of affairs consisting of some x-ray's having such and such a pattern at some time t, then there is a state of affairs involving a dog's leg having been the object of that x-ray and that leg's being broken at t. So the indicated proposition is that there is a dog of which this is the x-ray, and it has a broken leg. The pure information is about the x-ray, but not about Jackie, or her leg." (Israel & Perry, 1990, p. 10)

"Incremental information" concerns more specific information that may result at the terminus of "information flow architectures" (Israel & Perry, 1991). A distinction is made between "informational content" and "information": "Informational content is only information when the constraints and connecting facts are actual" (Israel & Perry, 1991, p. 147). The causal relations among the contents of an "information system" are called "architectural" (Israel & Perry, 1991, pp. 147-148).

Dretske's Xerox principle becomes a regulative one: the point is to develop information flow architectures whose signals at the terminus will contain incremental information with regard to the earlier ones (Israel & Perry, 1991). In contrast to Dretske's concept of information, the theory of situation semantics defines information within a realistic and not just cognitivistic framework Information contents are not dependent on the knowledge of the receiver, Dretske's k, but on types of situations. Two different receivers may extract, due to different constraints and facts, different information contents from the same signal. According to Pérez Gutiérrez's (2000), further development of this theory — he was inspired by the formalization of the information flow through Barwise and Seligman (1997) — the incremental information content may be defined only with regard to "classifications" or clusters of situations connected through channels through which the information is transmitted without any reference to a receiver's interpretation. Based on Wittgenstein's (1958b) notion of language games as specified by the formal notion of situations as well as on Gregory Bateson's (1979) ecological paradigm, Riegeer (1996, 0. 292) analyzes the linear (or syntagmatic) and selective (or paradigmatic) constraints that natural language structure imposes on the formation of strings of linguistic entities:

The regularities of word-usage may serve as an access to and a representational format for those elastic constraints which underlay and condition any word-type's meaning, the interpretations it allows within possible contexts of use, and the information its actual word-token employment on a particular occasion may convey.

We conclude this analysis of the semantic concept of information by stating that even if information is seen as something existing independently of a receiver's knowledge, this does not necessarily imply that information is something absolute. The situation theory conceives information in relation to situations with their constraints and contingencies.
Oeser (1976) remarks that the objectivity of scientific knowledge is not attained through the elimination of the knower, but on the basis of the intersubjective information process. Information is a "system-relative concept" (Oeser, 1976, II, p. 86). Some classical theories of information define it with regard to the change on the receiver's model of reality; that is, as a pragmatic concept (MacKay, 1969; Morris, 1955). This is particularly the case with definitions based on system theory, second-order cybernetics and semiotics (Qvortrup, 1993). Kornwachs (1996) defines pragmatic information as an impinging entity, one that is able to change the structure and the behavior of systems. According to biologists like Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela (1980), as well as cyberneticians like Heinz von Foerster (1980, 1984) information is the observer's construction or a mental difference that makes and/or finds a difference in the external world. For Flückiger (1999), information is an individual's brain construct. According to Qvortrup (1993, p. 12), the conception of information as a mental difference "doesn't necessarily imply that the difference in reality that triggered the mental difference called information is a mental construction." The German sociologist Niklas Luhmann has developed an information concept based on the theory of self-referential systems. Luhmann (1987) distinguishes between biological and social (and psychic) systems. Social (and psychic) systems are constituted by meaning (Sinn). In the case of biological systems, self-reference means self-reproduction. Meaning is produced through processing differences, and this is possible because there is a meaning offer (Mitteilung) out of which a selection can be made. Information (Information) is, then, an event that produces a connection between differences or — Luhmann cites Bateson's (1972, p. 459) famous definition —, "a difference that makes a difference." "Understanding" (Verstehen) is the difference between "meaning offer" (Mitteilung) and "selection" (Information). Communication is the unity of meaning offer, information, and understanding. According to this theory, no transmission of information occurs between a sender and a receiver. This thing-oriented metaphor implies that there is something the sender has and loses when she or he sends it. The sender, in fact, makes a suggestion for selection. Information is not something identical for both sender and receiver, but it has to be constituted through the communication process (Luhmann, 1987, pp, 193-194).
Janich (1998) develops a theory of information that is exclusively related to purpose-oriented human actions. Information is defined as a predicate that qualifies standard request dialogues where linguistic utterances are speaker-, listener-, and form-invariant. Such invariances make possible to reproduce these situations on the basis of anthropomorphic artificial devices.

Information is a key concept in sociology, political science, and the economics of the so-called information society. According to Webster (1995, 1996), definitions of information society can be analyzed with regard to five criteria: technological, economic, occupational, spatial, and cultural (Webster, 1995, p. 6). The technological definition is concerned with the applications of information technologies in society. The economic definition goes back to the pioneering work of Machlup (1962), Boulding (1966), Arrow (1979), and Porat (1977). The occupational definition is at the heart of Porat's and Bell's (1973) theories. The spatial definition concerns information networks and the emergence of a "network marketplace" (Castells, 1989). The cultural definition is related to the influence of media in society. Classic theoreticians of the information society are, according to Webster: Bell, Giddens, Schiller, Habermas, Baudrillard, Vattimo, Poster, Lyotard, and Castells.

According to Bougnoux (1993, 1995) the concepts of information and communication are inversely related: Communication is concerned with forecasting and redundancy; information with the new and the unforeseen. There is no pure information or "information- in-itself" (that is, information is always related to some kind of redundancy or "noise"). To inform (others or oneself) means to select and to evaluate. This is particularly relevant in the field of journalism and mass media, but, of course, also in information science. The action of bringing a message and the message itself were designated in Greek by the terms angellein and angelia (Capurro, 1978). The modern concept of information as knowledge communication is not related just to a secular view of messages and messengers but includes also a modern view of empirical knowledge shared by a (scientific) community. Postmodernity opens this concept to all kinds of messages, particularly within the perspective of a digital environment. We may call a science of knowledge (better: message) communication information science or angeletics (Capurro, 2000). Flusser (1996) has developed a "communicology" in which "discursive media" are concerned with the distribution of information whereas "dialogical media" deal with the creation of new information. Flusser fears that mass media may swallow up dialogical media into a hierarchical model. He did not foresee the Internet as a communication structure in which both media would merge beyond a central or panoptic power. It is, of course, an open question how far this is, or will be, the case. Krippendorff (1994) has explored different information and communication metaphors such as the one of message transmission, the container metaphor, the metaphor of sharing common views, the argument metaphor, the canal metaphor, and the control metaphor. These metaphors are originated within different cultural environments. The phenomena they address are intimately related to the metaphors themselves. We must learn to use them creatively; that is, to see their limits and to learn how to apply them accurately in different theoretical and practical situations.

Braman (1989) provides an important discussion of approaches to defining information for policy makers. Four major views are identified: (1) information as a resource, (2) information as a commodity, (3) information as a perception of patterns, and (4) information as a constitutive force in society. The relative benefits and problems with each of these four conceptions are discussed. The article points out that the selection of one definition or another has important consequences, and also that the tendency to neglect this problem results in conflicts rather than cooperation. Defining information is thus also a political decision.

The information age is also called "the age of access" (Rifkin, 2000). Information production, distribution, and access is at the heart of the new economy. The terminological shift from information society to knowledge society signals that the content, and not information technology, is the main challenge for economy as well as for society in general. From the perspective of knowledge management, information is used to designate isolated pieces of meaningful data that, when integrated within a context , constitute knowledge (Gundry 2001; Probst, Raub, & Romhard, 1999). This semantic concept of information, located between data and knowledge is not consistent with the view that equates information (management) with information technology. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) — who follow Polanyi's (1966) distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge — only explicit knowledge (information) can be managed. Correctly speaking, knowledge cannot be managed, only enabled (von Krogh, Ichijo, & Nonaka 2000). For Cornella (2000), companies are information. Castells (1996-1998) gives a comprehensive and critical analysis of the information age, including its social, economic, and cultural dimensions. For Hobart and Schiffman (2000), information is not a phenomenon that appears with modern technology but rather the product of the complex interactions between technology and culture. They distinguish between classical, modern, and contemporary information ages, the meaning of information being unique ito each age.

The fundamental fact of information's historicity liberates us from the conceit that ours is the information age, a conceit that underlies Kauffmanesque inferences from "computer-simulation movies" to history. It allows us to stand outside our contemporary information idiom, to see where it comes from, what it does, and how it shapes our thought. (Hobart & Schiffman, 2000, p. 264)

Brown and Duguid (2000) question "the myth of information" and information technologies that would be able to shape social organization by themselves. For it is not shared information but shared interpretation that binds people together. Borgmann's (1999, p. 57) critical appraisal of the nature of information is a plea for a new cultural and ethical balance between what he calls technological, natural, and cultural information: "Natural information pivots on natural signs — clouds, smoke, tracks. Cultural information centers on conventional signs — letters and texts, lines and graphs, notes and scores."

Borgmann (1999, pp. 218-219) sees technological information is the product of developments that began a century ago:

Based on information technology, our omniscience and omnipotence have achieved such transparency and control of information that there are not things any more to be discovered beyond the signs. Nothing is any longer buried beneath information. Behind the virtual self-representations there are no real persons left to be acknowledged.

We close this by no means exhaustive analysis of the concept of information in the humanities and social sciences with Eliot's (1969, p. 147) famous quotation:

We started this presentation of interdisciplinary theories by asking whether a common core can be found in the concept of information. According to Karpatschof (2000, pp. 131-132):

Information
The quality of a certain signal in relation to a certain release mechanism. The signal being a low energy phenomenon fulfilling some release specifications.

The signal is thus the indirect cause, and the process of the release mechanism the direct cause of the resulting high-energy reaction.

THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION